Edmund Spenser, “the poet’s poet” has invented a new form of
expression in English poetry which is known as Spenserian Stanza. Spenser used
this new form successfully in his epic poem ‘The Faerie
Queene’ (1590–96).
Hundreds of major poets of English poetry like John Keats, P.
B. Shelley, Alfred Tennyson etc have imitated Spenser and have used this
Spenserian Stanza in their poetry.
WHAT
IS A SPENSERIAN STANZA?
Spenserian Stanza contains nine lines in total: eight lines
in iambic pentameter followed by a single 'alexandrine' line in iambic
hexameter. The rhyme scheme of these lines is ABAB BCBC C.
EXAMPLE
OF SPENSERIAN STANZA:
Edmund Spenser devised the Spenserian stanza for his great work The
Faerie Queene (1590). The following stanza consists of eight lines of
iambic pentameter followed by a single alexandrine, a twelve-syllable iambic
line.
“A gentle knight was pricking on the plaine,
Ycladd in mightie armes and silver shielde,
Wherein old dints of deepe woundes did remaine,
The cruell markes of many a bloody fielde;
Yet armes till that time did he never wield:
His angry steede did chide his foaming bitt,
As much disdayning to the curbe to yield:
Full jolly knight he seemed, and faire did sitt,
As one for knightly jousts and fierce encounters fitt.”
In order to
understand a nation, we need to understand its citizens, their religion, their
costumes, their political, social and economic condition etc. An expert swimmer
too has to examine closely the depth of the water, the quality of water (hot or
cold) and the flow of water before jumping into it. In the same manner, a
student of literature must also be well acquainted with the principal characteristics
or elements of literature before studying it in detail. So now let's have a
look at the salient features of literature.
1. REFLECTION OF LIFE AND SOCIETY:
"Literature
is the reflection of life and society." True literature is a mirror to
life. It represents human nature and human life and society. It expresses
happiness and sorrow, hopes and fears, dreams and desires, ambitions and
aspirations of the people. Literature presents the social, political, economic
and familial problems realistically. In short, it gives us the realistic
picture of the society in which it is written. For example, G. B. Show has
presented the social problem of love triangle in his play Candida.
Charles Dickens’ novel ‘Great Expectations’ expresses a young boy Pip's struggle
against the oddities of life.
2. IMAGINATION:
Literature is a
creative art. The author is an artist who uses imagination to make his art or
works more beautiful. Without imagination literature cannot exist. In fact,
imagination is the prime characteristic of any good literature. Aristotle also
talks about the use of imagination when he says that poetry is an imaginative
reconstruction of life. Without imagination a poet cannot write poetry.
The author observes this real life and society and tries to represent the same
but he adds the color of imagination to this life and society to make it look
more beautiful. This element of imagination makes literature more pleasing and
delightful.
3. EMOTIONS:
Expression of
emotions or feelings hold important place in all literatures. Where there is
life, there are people and where there are people, there are emotions. Can you
imagine life without emotions? No. In literature too, the author deals with
some fundamental human emotions like happiness, sorrow, love, hatred, fear,
pity and so on in his works. For example, Shakespeare's play ‘King Lear’
presents an old father's feelings for his daughters. Wordsworth’s poem
'Daffodils' expresses the poet’s feelings of loneliness in the beginning and
happiness at the end.
4. MORAL AWARENESS:
It is believed
that true literature makes the society a better society, makes man a better
human being. In Sanskrit it is rightly said साविद्यायाविमुक्तये।Literature makes us free from ignorance and enlightens
us. Hence, true literature teaches moral lessons to the society. When we read
literature, knowingly or unknowingly we receive some deep messages for our
life. It is strongly believed that literature should present ideals before the
readers. It teaches different philosophies of life. There is the element of
moral awareness among the writers while writing literature. For example, Ernest
Hemingway's novel Old Man and the Sea unveils the philosophical idea "Man
is not made for defeat; man can be destroyed but not defeated."
5. UNIVERSAL APPEAL:
True literature appeals everyone forever. It is universal
in the sense that it has no barriers of time and place. True literature lives
forever at all places. For example, Ramayana, Bible, Bhagavad Gita and so on
were written before thousands of years but today people still read them and get
inspiration from them. Literature has no barriers of geography or culture or
society. True serious literature written in England is read and loved in other
countries as well. Serious literature written by an Indian is loved and
respected in all corners of the world. Hence we can say that universal
literature appeals to all in all times, at all places.
CONCLUSION:
In nutshell, we
may say that literature reflects life and society. It has the element of
realism and imagination makes it more pleasing. It carries real human emotions.
Literature holds some serious philosophy of life and it has the element of
moral awareness. All these qualities make literature universal in its true
sense.
Elizabethan
age has been rightly called as “a nest of singing birds”. Shakespeare, Spenser and Sidney are the trio-poets of
this most flowering period of English literature who heralded a new trend of
writing fabulous songs and sonnets in sequence.
William
Shakespeare has been applauded as the most outstanding poet and dramatist of
English literature. As a poet he wrote a series of 154 sonnets from 1593 to
1596 and published them in 1609.
Sonnet 116 by Shakespeare
explores the nature of true love and its enduring qualities.
Structure and Form:
Sonnet 116 follows the
typical Shakespearean sonnet structure. It is written in three quatrains and a
couplet. It consists of 14 iambic pentameter lines. The rhyme scheme of the
poem is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
Stanza wise Explanation:
Stanza 1:
“Let me not to
the marriage of true minds
Admit
impediments. Love is not love
Which alters
when it alteration finds,
Or bends with
the remover to remove”
In the first stanza, the poet
expresses the idea that true lovers do not to allow anything to obstruct or
hinder the union of two true and compatible minds in love. The term
"marriage of true minds" metaphorically represents a deep and
harmonious connection between two individuals. The speaker argues that real
love does not change when it encounters challenges or difficulties ("alters
when it alteration finds") nor does it weaken when the beloved changes or
tries to distance themselves from the relationship ("or bends with the
remover to remove").
Stanza 2:
“O no! it is an
ever-fixed mark
That looks on
tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to
every wandering bark,
Whose worth's
unknown, although his height be taken.”
In the second stanza, the poet
declares that love is unchanging and steadfast. Love is like a lighthouse that
remains firm even in the face of storms and challenges. It serves as a guiding
star for lost ships ("wandering bark"), and its true value can never
be fully understood, even though its position in the sky can be measured.
Stanza 3:
“Love's not
Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his
bending sickle's compass come;
Love alters not
with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out
even to the edge of doom.”
In the third stanza, the poet
continues to emphasize the immortal love. Love is portrayed as something that
is not subject to the influence of time ("Love's not Time's fool").
Despite the fact that youth and physical beauty may fade with time ("rosy
lips and cheeks"), true love remains unchanged. Love is immortal and never
dies even at the end of the world (doom).
Stanza 4:
“If this be
error and upon me proved,
I never writ,
nor no man ever loved.”
In the final couplet, Shakespeare
boldly asserts the truth of his words. He declares that if anyone can prove
these statements about love to be incorrect or false, then either he would
never write poetry or no one has ever truly experienced love. Thus, the last
couplet expresses the poet’s strong belief in true and immortal love.
Theme of Love:
The central theme of
Sonnet 116 is love. It specifically focuses on the constancy and immortality of
true love. True love is unchanging and constant. Shakespeare presents love as an
unwavering force that is not subject to time's effects or the changes of life.
True love passes from obstacles and challenges, but true love passes the test
of time and society.
Metaphor and Imagery:
The sonnet is rich in
metaphors and imagery. For example, the phrase "the marriage of true
minds" metaphorically represents the union of two souls in love. The
metaphor continues with references to the "star" and the
"ever-fixed mark," which symbolize the guiding light and unwavering
nature of true love.
Contrasts:
Shakespeare uses
contrasting elements to emphasize his point. He contrasts love with the
"Time's fool" and "bending sickle," (a cutting tool used in
farming)which represent the transitory nature of life and the ravages of time.
By juxtaposing these images with the constancy of love, he underscores love's
eternal quality.
Universal Message:
One of the reasons why
Sonnet 116 is so appealing is its universal message. Shakespeare's description
of love applies to all times and cultures, making it relevant even today. The
idea of love as an unwavering force is a sentiment that continues to resound
with people.
CONCLUSION:
In this way, Sonnet 116 by
William Shakespeare is a powerful exploration of the enduring nature of true
love. Through its use of metaphor, imagery, and rhetorical devices, the sonnet
presents love as an unwavering force that transcends the challenges of time and
life. It remains a beloved piece of literature, celebrated for its timeless
message about the nature of love.
John Keats (1795-1821), one of the
most important romantic poets of English literature has written fabulous
lyrical poems. ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’ is a ballad which tells a story of a
knight who meets a mysterious lady and loses all his powers. The central idea
of the poem is ‘the destructive power of beauty and love’. The poem is
structured in 12 stanzas (quatrains). The rhyming pattern is ABCB in all
quatrains.
Stanza-wise Summary:
Stanza 1
A knight is wandering alone, looking pale and weak. The lake and plants around him are dry, and no birds are singing.
Stanza 2
The knight looks tired and sad, even though it is the season of harvest. Animals are storing food, but he is full of sorrow.
Stanza 3
The knight’s face shows signs of sickness. His forehead is pale like a white flower, and his cheeks are fading like a dying rose.
Stanza 4
The knight says he met a very beautiful lady in the fields. She looked like a fairy with long hair, light steps, and wild eyes.
Stanza 5
He made flower ornaments for her head, arms, and waist. She looked at him with love and sighed sweetly.
Stanza 6
He placed her on his horse, and they spent the whole day together. She sang songs that sounded magical.
Stanza 7
The lady gave him sweet roots, wild honey, and a magical food called manna-dew. She spoke strange words, but said “I love you truly.”
Stanza 8
She took him to her cave. There she cried and sighed, and he kissed her eyes to comfort her.
Stanza 9
She put him to sleep, and he had a strange dream. That dream brought him sadness and trouble.
Stanza 10
In the dream, he saw pale kings, princes, and warriors. They told him that the beautiful lady had trapped them as well.
Stanza 11
Their mouths looked starved and full of pain. When he woke up, he found himself alone on the cold hillside.
Stanza 12
The knight ends by saying this is why he wanders sadly. The lady has left him weak and lonely, just like the lifeless land around him.
Themes:
La Belle Dame sans Merci’ is a ballad
that explores themes of love, enchantment, and the destructive power of love
and beauty. The knight's encounter with the mysterious lady leads to his
downfall and serves as a cautionary tale about the temporary and deceiving
nature of romantic charm.
Deceptive Beauty:
The lady is described as ‘La Belle
Dame sans Merci’, or "The Beautiful Lady Without Mercy." Despite her
outward beauty, she lacks mercy and compassion. The poem suggests that mere physical
attraction can lead to emotional destruction.
Attraction and Deception:
The knight is spellbound by the
lady's beauty and falls under her spell. However, this enchantment is not a
positive force. Instead, it leads to the knight's downfall and a sense of
perpetual longing. The lady's seductive charms hide a darker reality.
Isolation and Unhappiness:
The knight's experience with the lady
leaves him isolated and unhappy. The once vibrant and lively meadows become
barren, echoing the emotional emptiness he feels. The poem conveys a sense of
the knight's loneliness and the aftermath of his encounter with the beautiful
but merciless lady.
Warnings and Foreboding:
The dream or vision within the poem
includes warnings from pale kings and princes who have also fallen victim to
the lady's enchantment. This adds an element of foreboding, suggesting that the
consequences of such infatuations are universal and haunting.
Themes of Romanticism:
The poem presents Romantic themes,
including the fascination with the supernatural, the emotional intensity of
love, and the connection between nature and human experience. Keats explores
the darker aspects of love, moving beyond the idealized and celebrating the
complexities of human emotions.
Poetic Devices:
Simile:
The lady's eyes are described as
"wild as any hawk's."
(a wild hunting bird)
Personification:
The poem personifies nature and the
surrounding elements. For instance, the "sedge (grass) has wither'd from
the lake," giving human qualities to the sedge.
Symbolism:
The pale warriors, kings, and princes
in the poem symbolize the victims of the lady's enchantment and the destructive
power of love. The lady herself can be seen as a symbol of the allure and
danger of beauty and desire.
Irony:
The title itself, ‘La Belle Dame sans
Merci’, is ironic, as it presents the lady as beautiful but without mercy. The
entire poem can be seen as an ironic presentation because it deals with the
idea that though beauty is enchanting, it is destructive too.
W. H. Auden (1907–1973) is an Anglo-American poet of English literature.
Auden, influenced by Eliot, Hopkins, Kipling, Freud and Marx, is popular as the
most representative poet of the thirties. He has been acclaimed as a war poet
and as a poet of modernism and experimentation. He has written poems on love,
death and war.
AUDEN’S FAMOUS POEMS:
Lullaby, Funeral Blues, Autumn Song, As I Walked
Out One Evening, Epitaph on a Tyrant, In Memory of W. B. Yeats, The Unknown
Citizen, September 1, 1939, The Fall of Rome, The Shield of Achilles
THEMES:
1.Death & Life After
Death:
"In Memory of W.B. Yeats" is all about
death. After all, it's an elegy, a poem written in memory of a a great English
poet, who has passed away. The central idea is that death is inevitable but
there is a life after death in case of the death of the poets like Yeats.
2.Isolation
"In Memory of W.B. Yeats"
depicts the world as a lonely place. Funny enough, though, people don't even
seem to realize how alone and isolated they are. Poetry may not be a perfect
cure for all this isolation, but according to Auden, it can help people see the
truth of their situation.
Structure of In Memory
of W.B. Yeats
‘In Memory of W.B. Yeats’ by W. H. Auden is a
three-part poem that is further divided into stanzas of different lengths. The
first part of the poem contains six stanzas, the second: one and the third: six
again. Auden does not make use of a rhyme scheme in the first two parts of the
poem but in the third he does. They rhyme pattern of the last part is AABB CCDD.
Poetic Techniques in In
Memory of W.B. Yeats
Auden has used several poetic like enjambment, allusion, and alliteration.
Allusion is an expression
that’s meant to call something specific to mind without directly stating it. In
the second part of the poem, Auden alludes to some of Yeats’ other works,
especially those focused on the Irish Independence Movement The final section
alludes to the tragedies of the Second World War that was being prepared in
1939 when Yeats died.
Alliteration occurs when same
consonant sounds are repeated. For example, “dying day” in the
fourth line of the first stanza in section one, or “Silence” and “suburbs” in
stanza three of the same section are the examples of alliteration found in this
poem.
Enjambmentoccurs when a line is cut off before its natural
stopping point. Enjambment forces a reader down to the next line, and the next,
quickly. This enjambment is found between lines three and four in the first
stanza of section three and also between lines one and two of stanza three of
that same section.
Analysis of In Memory
of W.B. Yeats
Part I
Stanza One
“He disappeared in the dead winter:
The brook was frozen, the airports almost deserted,
(…)
What instruments we have agree
The day of his death was a dark cold day”
In the first stanza Auden begins by referring to Yeats as having had
disappeared in the “dead of winter”. The poet writes about the sad demise of W.
B. Yeats by using the images of the dead winter, frozen brook, deserted
airports, disfigured statues and so on.
Stanza Two
“Far from his illness
(…)
The death of the poet was kept from his poems.”
In the second stanza of ‘In Memory of W.B. Yeats’ the speaker describes how
despite the death of this great man, things go on. The wolves are still running
through the forests and the “peasant river” is attempted by the more
“fashionable quays”. The normal life goes on even after the death of such a
great poet.
The final two lines of this stanza suggest that though the poet has died
his poems continue to serve his readers.
Stanza Three
“But for him it was his last afternoon as himself,
(…)
The current of his feeling failed; he became his
admirers.”
The third stanza gives the reader a very human picture of Yeats’ death. His
last moments were spent around nurses in the hospital. In the next lines, he
depicts Yeats’ body at war with itself. There was nothing but “silence” in the
suburbs.
In the last line, Auden suggests that his memory lives forever among the
readers who loved his works.
Stanza Four
“Now he is scattered among a hundred cities
(…)
Are modified in the guts of the living.”
In the fourth stanza the poetdescribes
how Yeats’ soul and essence are “scattered among a hundred cities” among all
his admirers. He is still living through his poems. Here, Auden emphasizes the
theme of life after death.
Stanza Five
“But in the importance and noise of to-morrow
When the brokers are roaring like beasts on the
floor of the bouse,
(…)
A few thousands will think of this day
As one thinks of a day when one did something
slightly unusual.”
Once again Auden speaks on how the human world is going on without pause.
He uses a simile to describe how the “brokers are roaring like beasts in the
Wall Street. He also describes the poor as back to normal as well, they suffer
as they always do.
Yeats’ death is only one more moment of unhappiness in the world. It passes
just like everything else does.
Stanza Six
“What instruments we have agree
The day of his death was a dark cold day.”
The last two lines of this first part act as a refrain. They are a
repetition of the two lines at the end of the first stanza, reemphasizing the
need for different instruments to measure the poet’s death. The poet wants to
say that one cannot measure the death of such a great poet like Yeats.
Part II
Stanza One
“You were silly like us; your gift survived it all:
The parish of rich women, physical decay,
(…)
Raw towns that we believe and die in; it survives,
A way of happening, a mouth.”
The second part of ‘In Memory of W.B. Yeats’ is only one stanza long. Here,
Auden explains that nothing changed in the world due to Yeats’ poetry as poetry
is not supposed to be a tool to bring ahuge change. It is meant to do something different, something more short-lived.
The speaker says that poetry, like water is something that “flows”.
Part III
Stanza One
“Earth, receive an honoured guest:
(…)
Emptied of its poetry.”
The third section begins with Auden addressing the earth. This part of the poem
takes the form of an elegy. He asks it to revive Yeats’ body where he is laid
to rest. This is also the first time that “William Yeats” is mentioned by name.
He was a “vessel” for his poetry and now that’s all that remains. It is empty
of the poetry it once held.
Stanza Two
“In the nightmare of the dark
(…)
Each sequestered in its hate;”
The second stanza gives the reader a few more details about the poet’s
death. It occurred in 1939 in the face of World War II. A nightmare is on its
way and “All the dogs of Europe bark” at its approach. The nations of the world
are “sequestered,” (lonely) separate from one another.
For the first time in this long work Auden is using a rhyme scheme.
Stanza Three
“Intellectual disgrace
(…)
Locked and frozen in each eye.”
Here, Auden is mentioning the countries who are on the verge of war. Nothing
pleasant is occurring at this time in the world. Auden chose to write much
about the political climate of the time in this poem because of Yeats’ own
interest in politics.
Stanzas Four and Five
“Follow, poet, follow right
To the bottom of the night,
(…)
Sing of human unsuccess
In a rapture of distress;”
In the fourth stanza of ‘In Memory of W.B. Yeats’ the speaker celebrates
Yeats’ ability to look into the “bottom of the night” with his “unconstraining
(limitless) voice”. Poetry was a tool that allowed him to see clearly. It still
has power as well. This is another example of life after death that was so
important in the first part of the poem.
Auden uses dark images in the fifth stanza to suggest how Yeats would’ve
spoken about the state of the world during the Second World War. He’d “sing of
human unsuccess / in a rapture of distress”.
Stanza Six
“In the deserts of the heart
(…)
Teach the free man how to praise.”
In the final stanza the image of water appears again. The poet says that
“healing fountain” should “Start” in the hearts of men.
The poem ends optimistically but also with a dark image of the human
condition. He states that life is a “prison” and that by spending time with
poetry, specifically Yeats’ poetry, one can learn how to praise, or be hopeful.
My Shakespeare, rise; I will not lodge
thee by Chaucer or Spenser,
Thou art a monument, without a tomb,
And art alive still, while thy book doth
live,
And we have wits to read , and praise to
give.”
Ben Jonson
INTRODUCTION:
Human life is both a tragedy and a
comedy. Tears and smiles, sighs and shouts of joy, marriage and funerals go
side by side. Tragedy and comedy are the twin sisters of the same mother called
“LIFE”. Goethe says, “Human life is a tale, told in
tears with smile.”
WHAT IS A COMEDY?
·Aristotle defines comedy:
“Comedy is an imitation of men worse than the average… not
productive of pain or harm to others.”
·Horace Walpole also writes:
“Life is a tragedy for those who feel, and a comedy for
those who think.”
1.Comedy is a
play which ends with a happy note.
2.Comedy
deals with light or trivial subject matter.
3.It arouses
humour and laughter.
4.It aims at
reforming the follies or weaknesses of mankind.
5.It appeals
our intelligence.
SHAKESPEARE’S CONCEPT OF
ROMANTIC COMEDY:
The above views expressed about
comedy are generally not applicable to the Shakespearean comedy.
·Shakespeare’s romantic comedy does not make an
appeal so much to our intelligence as to the heart of man.
·Its primary aim is neither satire nor correction of
the evils of the society. Its aim is just to give pure pleasure and joy.
·Unlike classical comedies, Shakespeare’s romantic
comedies do not follow the unity of time, place and action.
Shakespeare has his own norms of
writing romantic comedies. Let’s examine the chief characteristics of
Shakespearean Romantic Comedy:
FEATURES OF ROMANTIC
COMEDY OF SHAKESPEARE:
1.Fanciful World of Imagination
2.Element of Realism
3.Element of Humour
4.Subject Matter of Love
5.Light Mood
6.Music and Songs
1.FANCIFUL WORLD OF IMAGINATION:
Shakespeare’scomedies such as ‘As You Like It’, ‘The Twelfth Night’ and
‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’ have their scenes of actions located in a far,
distant land, far from the hurry of modern life. They are staged in a remote
and fanciful world of imagination. In his romantic comedies, we come across
some fairy land, magical woods and so on. In short, the places in his romantic
comedies are the creation of imaginative fertile brain of the dramatist which
we never see on the earth.
2. ELEMENT OF REALISM:
The background and atmosphere of Shakespearean romantic comedies is
highly imaginative and fanciful. However, “Life keeps hovering over it and
enter into it.” It is Shakespeare’s unique quality that he combines the real
and unreal in his comedies. The romantic world of fairy land has life like
characters like merchants Antonio and Shylock, real lovers like Portia and
Bassanio, Helena and Demetrius. They face the same real problems that we face
in our real life. “The path of true love never did run smooth.” This lines
applies to the characters of Shakespeare’s comedies and to us in our real life
too. The mischeveous characters like Puck as found in ‘A Midsummer Night’s
Dream’ are also found in our neighbourhood. The love triangles presented by
Shakespeare is found in our life too. So, we can say that there is a touch of
realism in his comedies.
3.ELEMENT OF HUMOUR:
Humour is the soul of Shakespearean Romantic Comedy. While watching the
play, the audience cannot control their laughter. Shakespeare’s humour is
harmless, he does not laugh at anyone. He does not aim at reforming the social
evils as we generally see in other comedies. His funny clown characters like
Puck and Bottom have become immortal in English literature.
4.SUBJECT MATTER OF LOVE:
Shakespeare’s romantic comedy is primarily the comedy of love. Love is
the life blood of all his comedies. The plots of his comedies are those of love
intrigues. Here, the lover meet, depart, fight, hate each other and then
compromise and marry at the end. ‘The merchant of Venice’ deals with the love story
of Bassanio and Portia. ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’ present the love story of
Helena and Demetrius, Hermia and Lysander, Oberon and Titania.
5.MUSIC AND SONGS:
In Shakespeare’s comedies, music
and songs predominate. The tone of his romantic comedies is lyrical. There are
six melodious songs in ‘A Midsummer Night’s Dream’.
“Over hill, over dale
Through bush and brior
Flood and fire.”
What a melodious music is displayed
in this song! Each line and stanza of the songs can well be sung with music.
CONCLUSION:
Thus, we may sum up by saying that
the Romantic Comedy of Shakespeare is altogether different from other comedies
of English literature. It creates gentle, innocent humour and laughter. It does
not harm anyone and does not aim at reforming the society. It is full of
realism and imagination. Here, love is the central subject matter and music and
songs make his comedies more appealing and interesting.
