Origin and Development of the Essay in English Literature

Origin and Development of the Essay

in English Literature

Introduction

The essay is an important form of English prose. The word “essay” comes from the French word “essai”, which means “attempt” or “trial.” An essay is a short piece of prose in which a writer expresses ideas, opinions, observations, or feelings on a particular subject. The essay may be serious, humorous, personal, critical, or descriptive.

Origin of the Essay

The essay as a literary form began in France. The French writer Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) is generally regarded as the father of the modern essay. His famous book ‘Essais’ was published in 1580. Montaigne wrote about ordinary subjects such as friendship, education, fear, death, customs, and human behaviour. He did not always give fixed answers. Instead, he explored his own thoughts and experiences.

The Beginning of the English Essay

The English essay developed soon after Montaigne. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) is considered the father of the English essay. His Essays was first published in 1597 and later enlarged in 1612 and 1625.

Bacon's essays are different from Montaigne's. They are generally short, serious, practical, and full of wisdom. He writes about subjects such as truth, studies, friendship, marriage, parents and children, ambition, and revenge.

Some famous essays by Bacon are:

“Of Studies”

“Of Truth”

“Of Friendship”

“Of Revenge”

“Of Marriage and Single Life”

For example, in “Of Studies,” Bacon explains the value of reading and learning. His famous statement, “Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability,” shows his simple but powerful way of presenting ideas.

Development in the 18th Century

The essay became very popular in the 18th century, especially through newspapers and periodicals. Joseph Addison and Richard Steele played a major role in this development. They started The Tatler in 1709 and The Spectator in 1711.

Their essays discussed everyday life, manners, education, fashion, morality, and society. Their language was simple and easy to understand. The famous character Sir Roger de Coverley, created mainly by Addison, became an important example of character writing in the period.

The Essay in the 19th Century

During the 19th century, the essay became more personal, literary, and imaginative. Writers such as Charles Lamb, William Hazlitt, Thomas De Quincey, John Ruskin, and Thomas Carlyle made important contributions.

Charles Lamb is especially famous for his personal essays. His Essays of Elia contains essays such as “Dream Children” and “A Dissertation upon Roast Pig.” Lamb writes about ordinary experiences in a warm, humorous, and personal manner.

William Hazlitt wrote critical and personal essays. His essays often deal with literature, art, politics, and human life.

The Modern Essay

In the 20th century, the essay became even more varied. Writers such as G. K. Chesterton, George Orwell, Virginia Woolf, E. M. Forster, and Aldous Huxley used the essay to discuss literature, politics, society, culture, and personal experiences.

For example, George Orwell's “Politics and the English Language” discusses how unclear language can affect political thinking. Virginia Woolf's “The Death of the Moth” uses a small incident to reflect on life and death.

Conclusion

Thus, the essay has developed from Montaigne's personal experiments in thought to Bacon's serious and practical essays, Addison and Steele's periodical essays, the personal essays of Lamb and Hazlitt, and the wide-ranging modern essays of writers like Orwell and Woolf. The essay remains popular because it allows writers to discuss almost any subject in a simple and flexible form.

 

Barabas as Tragic Hero, Protagonist or Antagonist in The Jew of Malta

Barabas as Tragic Hero, Protagonist or Antagonist in The Jew of Malta

Introduction

Christopher Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta is a famous Elizabethan play. Its central character is Barabas, a wealthy Jewish merchant living in Malta. The play is difficult to place in the traditional categories of tragedy because Barabas is not a simple hero or villain. He has some qualities of a tragic hero, but he is also a protagonist and, in many situations, an antagonist. For UG students, it is useful to understand all three possibilities.

Barabas as the Protagonist

Barabas can certainly be called the protagonist of the play. A protagonist is the main character around whom the action of a play develops.

Most of the important events in The Jew of Malta are connected with Barabas. At the beginning, he is introduced as a rich merchant who has collected enormous wealth. When the Turkish Sultan demands money from Malta, the Governor, Ferneze, decides to take the wealth of the Jews to pay the Turkish demand.

Barabas strongly objects to this injustice. He says that his wealth has been earned through hard work and business. However, the authorities seize his property. His house is also converted into a nunnery.

This event changes Barabas. He decides to take revenge on the people who have wronged him. Much of the later action—his plans, murders, betrayals and schemes—comes from this desire for revenge.

Therefore, Barabas is clearly the central character and protagonist of the play.

Barabas as an Antagonist

Barabas can also be considered an antagonist, especially from the point of view of the other characters.

An antagonist is a character who opposes another character or creates serious conflict. Barabas becomes a major source of danger and destruction in the play.

For example, he uses poison to kill the nuns who have taken possession of his house. He also manipulates people around him. He uses his daughter Abigail in his plans and later causes the death of his own daughter when she becomes a Christian and refuses to support his actions.

His most shocking act is his betrayal of Calymath, the Turkish leader. Barabas pretends to cooperate with him but secretly plans to destroy him.

Barabas therefore becomes increasingly cruel and dangerous. His desire for revenge goes far beyond the original injustice done to him. He becomes responsible for the suffering and death of many people.

Thus, Barabas functions as an antagonistic force against several characters.

Is Barabas a Tragic Hero?

The question of whether Barabas is a tragic hero is more complicated.

A traditional tragic hero is generally a person of considerable importance who has a serious weakness or tragic flaw. Because of this weakness, he makes wrong decisions and finally suffers a terrible fall.

Barabas has some qualities of a tragic hero. At the beginning, he is powerful, wealthy and respected as a successful merchant. His enormous wealth gives him confidence and independence.

However, his greed, pride and desire for revenge become his tragic weaknesses. When his property is taken, he does not seek justice through peaceful means. Instead, he chooses revenge. His revenge gradually destroys his humanity.

For example, after losing his wealth, he plans the deaths of his enemies. His actions become more and more violent. His own daughter Abigail becomes a victim of his revenge. This shows how far his tragic flaw has taken him.

At the end of the play, Barabas himself is destroyed by the Governor. He falls into a cauldron of boiling oil, after being trapped by a plan arranged against him. His final destruction is therefore connected with his own violent schemes.

Conclusion

Barabas is best described as the protagonist of The Jew of Malta because he is the central character and most of the action revolves around him. He can also be called an antagonist because his actions create conflict and cause suffering to many other characters.

Calling him a tragic hero is possible, but with some qualification. He does not fully fit the traditional model of a noble tragic hero like Shakespeare’s Hamlet or Macbeth. He is morally complex and often cruel. Yet his fall from a wealthy and powerful merchant to a destroyed and isolated man has important tragic elements.

Therefore, Barabas is primarily the protagonist, secondarily an antagonist, and only in a limited or modified sense a tragic hero. Marlowe deliberately makes him a complex character whose ambition, greed and revenge drive the entire tragedy.

Elements of Essay as a Form of Literature

Elements of Essay as a Form of Literature

Introduction

The essay is an important form of English prose literature. The word essay means an attempt or trial. The French writer Michel de Montaigne is generally regarded as the father of the modern essay. His ‘Essais’ presented his personal thoughts, experiences, observations, and opinions. Later, writers such as Francis Bacon, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Dr. Samuel Johnson, Charles Lamb, and William Hazlitt developed the English essay in different ways.

The important elements of an essay as a literary form are as follows:

1. Subject or Theme

Every essay has a particular subject, theme or central idea. It may deal with human life, society, education, friendship, books, politics, nature, or everyday experiences.

For example, Bacon wrote essays on subjects such as “Of Studies,” “Of Truth,” “Of Friendship,” and “Of Marriage and Single Life.” His essays deal with important aspects of human life. In Bacon’s “Of Studies,” the central idea is the importance and proper use of study. He explains how reading and study can develop a person’s knowledge and judgment.

2. Personal Element or Subjectivity

A literary essay often presents the writer’s personal view of a subject. The personal element or subjectivity is one of the most important features of the essay. The writer’s personality, feelings, opinions, and experiences can often be seen in the essay.

This element is especially clear in Montaigne’s essays. He often writes about himself, his habits, thoughts, and experiences. Charles Lamb also makes strong use of the personal element. His essay “Dream Children: A Reverie” contains personal memories, imagination, and emotion.

3. Brevity

An essay is generally a short prose composition. The writer tries to express his ideas without unnecessary details. Essay has no scope for elaborate narration of ideas. It has to be very short and to the point.

Bacon’s essays are excellent examples of brevity. His sentences are often short and full of meaning. For example, “Reading maketh a full man” from Of Studies expresses a significant idea in very few words.

4. Unity and Coherence

A good essay should have unity. All its ideas should be connected with the main subject. It should also have coherence, meaning that ideas should follow one another naturally.

The essays in The Spectator, written mainly by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, are good examples. Their discussions of manners, society, and everyday life generally develop around a central subject.

5. Style

Style means the writer’s particular way of using language. Different essayists have different styles.

·        Bacon – concise, serious, philosophical, and full of memorable sayings.

·        Addison – clear, elegant, balanced, and gentle.

·        Steele – simple, lively, and conversational.

·        Charles Lamb – personal, humorous, emotional, and imaginative.

·        William Hazlitt – passionate, critical, argumentative, and energetic.

·        Dr. Samuel Johnson – serious, moral, intellectual, and dignified.

Thus, style helps us recognise the personality of an essayist.

6. Humour and Satire

Humour and satire are also important elements of many essays. Writers use humour to entertain readers and satire to point out the weaknesses of individuals or society.

Addison and Steele often used gentle satire to criticise the manners and habits of eighteenth-century society. Charles Lamb used humour in essays such as “A Dissertation upon Roast Pig.” Essayists often observe people, society, customs, and everyday life. Their essays therefore provide valuable pictures of the society of their time.

Addison and Steele’s The Spectator presents eighteenth-century English society, its manners, fashions, habits, and social problems. Dr. Johnson’s “The Vanity of Human Wishes” and his prose writings also reflect his serious observations about human life.

8. Imagination and Emotion

Some essayists combine thought with imagination and emotion. This makes the essay more literary and attractive.

Charles Lamb is an excellent example. In “Dream Children: A Reverie,” he mixes memory, imagination, love, and sadness. His essays show that an essay can be both thoughtful and deeply emotional.

Conclusion

The essay is a flexible and personal form of prose literature. Its important elements include subject, central idea, personal element, subjectivity, brevity, unity, coherence, style, humour, social observation, imagination, and emotion. Different essayists have developed these elements in different ways.

·        Montaigne gave the essay its personal character;

·        Bacon made it concise and philosophical;

·        Addison and Steele made it social and conversational;

·        Dr. Johnson gave it moral seriousness;

·        Lamb made it personal and emotional;

·        Hazlitt made it critical and passionate.

Thus, the English essay has developed into a rich and varied form of literature.

Elements of a Short Story in English Literature

Elements of a Short Story in English Literature

A short story is a short work of fiction that tells a story in a simple and concentrated form. It usually focuses on a small number of characters and one main event, problem, or experience. Unlike a novel, a short story does not have enough space for many characters, places, or events. Therefore, every element of a short story must contribute to the main purpose of the story.

1. Plot

The plot is the sequence of events in a story. It tells us what happens and how one event leads to another. A good plot usually has a beginning, middle, and end.

The plot often follows these stages:

1. Beginning – The characters and situation are introduced.
2. Conflict – A problem or difficulty appears.
3. Development – The problem becomes more serious.
4. Climax – The most exciting or important point of the story is reached.
5. Resolution – The problem is solved or the story comes to an end.

A short story usually has a simple and closely connected plot.

2. Characters

Characters are the people, animals, or imaginary figures who take part in the story. The main character is called the protagonist. The character who opposes the protagonist is often called the antagonist.

A short story normally has only a few important characters. The writer does not give lengthy descriptions of every character. Instead, the character may be shown through actions, speech, thoughts, and behaviour.

For example, a character may be shown as honest because he returns something that does not belong to him.

3. Setting

The setting means the time and place in which the story happens. It may include a village, city, house, school, forest, or any other place. It also includes the historical period, season, weather, and social environment.

Setting can create the mood of a story. A dark and lonely house, for example, can create a feeling of fear. A peaceful village may create a feeling of calmness.

4. Conflict

Conflict means the struggle or problem faced by a character. It is one of the most important elements of a short story because it creates interest and keeps the reader involved.

There are different types of conflict:

1. Person vs Person – one character fights against another.
2. Person vs Society – a character struggles against social rules or customs.
3. Person vs Nature – a character struggles against natural forces.
4. Person vs Self – a character struggles with his or her own thoughts or feelings.

Without some kind of conflict, a story may become dull.

5. Theme

The theme is the main idea or message of a story. It tells us what the writer wants to say about life or human nature.

Common themes include love, friendship, poverty, loneliness, courage, greed, jealousy, sacrifice, death, and social injustice.

The theme is not always directly stated. Readers often understand it through the actions and experiences of the characters.

6. Point of View

Point of view means the position from which the story is told. The writer may tell the story through a character or as an outside observer.

The common types are:

1. First-person point of view – The narrator uses “I” or “we”.
2. Third-person point of view – The narrator uses “he”, “she”, or “they”.
3. Omniscient point of view – The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of different characters.

The choice of point of view affects how readers understand the story.

7. Climax

The climax is the most important or exciting moment in the story. It is the point at which the main conflict reaches its highest level.

For example, in a story about a person accused of a crime, the climax may come when the real evidence is discovered and the truth is revealed.

The climax gives the story its greatest emotional effect.

8. Resolution

The resolution is the ending of the story. It shows what happens after the climax. The main problem may be solved, partly solved, or sometimes left unanswered.

Some modern short stories have an open ending, where readers have to decide what happens next.

Conclusion

A short story is a compact form of fiction. Its major elements are plot, characters, setting, conflict, theme, point of view, climax, resolution, style, and atmosphere. These elements work together to create a meaningful story. Because a short story has limited space, the writer must present ideas and events in a careful and effective manner. A successful short story may be short in length, but it can present deep ideas about human life, society, emotions, and human nature.

ORIGIN OF NOVEL OR FICTION

 ORIGIN OF NOVEL / FICTION

INTRODUCTION:

Literature is written in different forms like poetry, drama, novel, short story, biography, autobiography, travelogue etc. Among all these forms, novel is the latest for of literature which emerged and became widely popular during the 18^th century in English literature. It is interesting to note that though novel is the last for of literature to be originated, it is now the most widely read and loved form of literature. ‘Pamela’ (1741) by Samuel Richardson is unanimously considered as the first novel of English literature.

ETYMOLOGY OF THE TERM ‘NOVEL’:      

The term ‘Novel’ is derived originally from Latin word ‘Novus’ meaning ‘New’. From Latin this word came to Italian language. In Italy there was a phrase ‘Novella Storia’ which means ‘New Story’. The English word ‘Novel’ comes from this Italian word ‘Novella’. During the 18^th century, a new form of expression came into existence in English literature and so it was named as ‘NOVEL’.

ROOTS OF ENGLISH NOVEL / FICTION:   

In the earliest times, literature was mostly written in poetic form. Novel is written in prose. The roots of novel lie long back in the French Romances written during the 14^th and 15^th centuries.

One of the notable English Romance is Malory’s ‘Morte d Arthur’ (1470) written in prose which narrates the story of the legend of King Arthur and his Knights.

Geoffrey Chaucer, a noted poet of the 14^th century also wrote both in poetry and prose. Chaucer’s ‘The Canterbury Tales’ (1387-1400) presents 24 stories which contains two stories in prose, namely, ‘Tale of Melibeus’ and ‘Parson’s Tale’. Kuiper opines that the roots of novel lie in Chaucer’s work because he introduced character, plot, dialogue, conflict etc in his ‘Canterbury Tales’ which later became the salient features of novel.

·   Origin of novel owes much to the Italian stories written by Boccassio. He published ‘Decameron’, a collection of stories during the 14^th century.

·       ‘Pilgrim’s Progress’ (1678) by John Bunyan too contributed to the origin of novel. According to Bora, “It provided an important model for story telling with vivid characterization and recording of dialogue which influenced a lot of later novelists.”

·       Aphra Ben’s short work of fiction ‘Oroonoko’ (1688) is also hailed as the first attempt  of novel writing in English.

·       Eliza Haywood’s ‘Love in Excess’ (1719) too is sometimes described as the first prose fiction in English.

·       ‘Robinson Crusoe’ (1719) by Daniel Defoe is also termed as the first novel of English literature by some scholars and critics. It appeared not a fiction, but more as a history of real events.

·       Joseph Addison and Richard Steel (‘The Tatler’ in 1709 and ‘The Spectator’ in 1711) popularized Periodical essays in the beginning of the 18^th century. They prepared a clear ground for novel to flourish as their character essays won the admiration of the readers.

However, novel in the real sense of the word came into existence only during the 18^th century with the publication of ‘Pamela’ (1740/41) by Samuel Richardson.

FOUR PILLARS OF ENGLISH FICTION:

1.   Samuel Richardson, known for his epistolary novels.  ‘Pamela’ (1740/41), ‘Clarissa’ (1748) ‘Sir Charles Grandison’ (1753)

2.   Henry Fielding, known for his picaresque novels. ‘Joseph Andrews’ (1742), ‘Tom Jones’ (1749) and ‘Amelia’ (1751)

3.   Tobias Smollett, known for his adventure novels. ‘The Adventures of Roderick Random’ (1748), ‘The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle’ (1751) and ‘The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker’ (1771)

4.   Laurence Stern, known for his unorthodox novels. ‘Tristram Shandy’ in nine volumes (1759-1767)

CONCLUSION:                

In this way, we may conclude that the whole journey of novel actually began during the 18^th century, but its roots lie in the Italian prose stories ‘Decameron’ by Boccaccio and Chaucer’s ‘The Canterbury Tales’ during the 14^th century. The credit is given to Daniel Defoe, John Bunyan and others for preparing a ground for the four pillars of English novels, namely, Richardson, Stern, Smollett and Henry Fielding.

Short Story: Origin and Definition

Origin & Definition of the Short Story in English Literature

Introduction

The short story is one of the most popular forms of literature. It is short in length but rich in meaning. A short story tells a complete story in a few pages. It usually has only one main idea, a small number of characters, and a single important event. It is written to give the reader a quick but powerful experience.

Origin of the Short Story

Storytelling is as old as human civilization. Long before people learned to write, they told stories by word of mouth. These stories were passed from one generation to another. They included folk tales, myths, legends, fables, and fairy tales.

Some of the earliest collections of stories are:

• Panchatantra from India
• Aesop's Fables from Greece
• The Arabian Nights (One Thousand and One Nights)
• The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

These works helped in the development of storytelling, but they were not modern short stories.

The modern short story developed during the nineteenth century. Several reasons helped its growth:

• The spread of education and literacy.
• The invention of printing and the growth of newspapers and magazines.
• Busy readers wanted short pieces that could be read in one sitting.

Many writers contributed to the development of the modern short story. In America, Edgar Allan Poe is called the father of the modern short story because he explained how a short story should be written and practised the form successfully. Nathaniel Hawthorne and O. Henry also became famous short story writers. In England, writers such as Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling, H. G. Wells, Katherine Mansfield, and Somerset Maugham made the short story a respected literary form.

Today, the short story is read all over the world and is one of the most important forms of modern literature.

Definition of the Short Story

A short story is a brief work of fiction that can usually be read in one sitting. It presents a single incident or idea and has only a few characters. Every part of the story is connected to its main purpose.

The American writer Edgar Allan Poe said that a short story should be short enough to be read in one sitting. According to him, every word and every event should create a single effect on the reader.

The English writer H. G. Wells described a short story as a piece of writing that can be read in about twenty minutes.

Although there is no fixed length, most short stories are much shorter than novels and usually contain between 1,000 and 7,500 words.

Main Features of a Short Story

The important characteristics of a short story are:

• It is short and can be read in one sitting.
• It has only one main plot.
• It usually has one or two main characters.
• It focuses on one important incident or idea.
• It takes place in a limited time and setting.
• It has a clear beginning, middle, and end.
• It creates a single emotional effect on the reader.
• Its language is simple, clear, and meaningful.

Conclusion

The short story has developed from ancient oral storytelling into an important modern literary form. Though short in length, it has great artistic value. It entertains, teaches, and makes readers think about life. Because it is easy to read and powerful in its effect, the short story remains one of the most loved forms of literature throughout the world.

Character Sketch of Miss Smith (A Cup of Tea by Katherine Mansfield)

Character Sketch of Miss Smith

(A Cup of Tea by Katherine Mansfield)

Introduction

Miss Smith is a poor young girl in A Cup of Tea. She meets Rosemary Fell on a cold winter evening and asks for the price of a cup of tea. She is weak, hungry, and helpless, but she is also polite and self-respecting. Although she appears only for a short time in the story, her presence reveals the true nature of Rosemary.

Main Qualities of Miss Smith

1. Poor and Needy

• Miss Smith is extremely poor and has no money.
• She asks Rosemary for the price of a cup of tea because she is hungry.
• Her condition reflects the hardships faced by the poor.

2. Humble and Polite

• Miss Smith speaks to Rosemary with respect and good manners.
• She politely asks for help without demanding anything.
• Her gentle behaviour makes Rosemary feel sympathy for her.

3. Honest and Truthful

• Miss Smith honestly tells Rosemary that she has no money.
• She does not lie or try to deceive anyone.
• Her honesty makes her request seem genuine and sincere.

4. Helpless and Vulnerable

• Miss Smith has no food, shelter, or support.
• She depends on the kindness of strangers for survival.
• Her helplessness highlights the gap between the rich and the poor.

5. Beautiful and Attractive

• Miss Smith is naturally pretty despite her poverty.
• Philip notices her beauty and openly admires it.
• Her beauty makes Rosemary feel jealous and insecure.

6. Dignified and Self-Respecting

• Miss Smith does not beg repeatedly or create a scene.
• She quietly accepts Rosemary's help and behaves with dignity.
• Even in poverty, she maintains her self-respect and good manners.

Conclusion

Miss Smith represents the poor and powerless people in society. Her honesty, politeness, and quiet dignity contrast sharply with Rosemary's pride and superficial kindness. Through Miss Smith's character, Katherine Mansfield reminds us that a person's true worth lies in character, not in wealth or social status.

"True dignity needs no wealth."

"Character is life's greatest wealth."