Ecofeminism in Literature, Types of Feminism, Ecofeminism in Indian Literature, Definition, Examples

 

ORIGIN & DEFINITION OF ECOFEMINISM:

The term “Ecofeminsim” was coined by the French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book ‘Le Féminisme ou la Mort’ (‘Feminism or Death’) published in 1974. The book explains the important role of feminism in addressing environmental and gender issues.

Ecofeminism is a theory, ideology and movement that examines how the oppression of women is interlinked to the oppression of nature with the same masculine centered attitudes and practices linked to the patriarchal society. Ecofeminism is a movement that speaks for women, environment and all the marginalized groups, This term was then widely accepted as a theory by scholars of literature and other environmentalists.

HOW IT GAINED POPULARITY?

·      Women-led environmental activism in India can be traced back to the Chipko Movement in the 1970s. Important for its mobilization of rural women, the Chipko Movement was one of the first acts of environmental activism.

In the recent years, voices like Medha Patkar, C. K. Janu, Mahasweta Devi and Arundhati Roy have played very important roles in several ecofeminist movements throughout the country.

·      Another example is the Green Belt Movement in Kenya. Founded by Wangari Maathai in 1977, this was set up to respond to the needs of women in rural areas of Kenya who reported that water supplies were drying up, food supplies were no longer secure and they had to walk further and further to get firewood for fuel and fencing. 

  WHY ECOFEMINISM?

Like other branches of feminism, ecofeminists seek equality between all genders in society. Ecofeminism critically examines and analyses the relationship between gender and our environment. They believe in Warren’s dictum:

“Nature is a feminist issue.”

Collantes writes:

“The IPCC [International Panel on Climate Change] found that gender inequalities are further exaggerated by climate-related hazards, and they result in higher workloads for women, occupational hazards indoors and outdoors, psychological and emotional stress and higher mortality compared to men.”

MAJOR ECOFEMINIST INDIAN WRITERS:

R. K. Narayan, Raja Rao, Kamala Markandey, Anita Desai, Kiran Desai, Jayant Mahapatra, Ramanujan, Bhabani Bhattacharya

POSTCOLONIAL ECOFEMINIST WORKS:

1.   Nectar in a sieve (1954) by Kamala Markandya

2.   Fire on the Mountain (1977) by Anita Desai

3.   A Riversutra(1993) by Gita Mehta

4.   The God of Small Things (1997) by Arundhati Roy

5.   The Madwoman of Jogare(1998) by SohailaAbdulali

TYPES OF ECOFEMINISM:

1.   Cultural/Spiritual Ecofeminism

2.   Materialist Ecofeminism

3.   Vegetarian Ecofeminism

1. CULTURAL / SPIRITUAL ECOFEMINISM:

Cultural/Spiritual Ecofeminism emphasizes on the natural connection between women and nature as exclusive and unique and supports the concept of “Mother Earth” and “femininity of nature”. They argue that traditional wisdoms of preserving and protecting nature as well as respecting women should be practiced in our contemporary society. Vandana Shiva describes this cultutral or spiritual ecofeminsm in her book ‘Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Survival in India’:

“Forests have always been central to Indian civilization. They have been worshipped as Aranyani, the Goddess of the Forest, the primary source of life and fertility, and the forest as a community has been viewed as a model for societal and civilizational evolution.”

2. Materialist Ecofeminism

Materialist Ecofeminism has a close connection with Marxist Feminism. It acknowledges the impact of capitalist patriarchal structures directly on marginalized genders (both nature and women). They believe that men have extracted raw materials, land, and energy resources from the environment and this has created unequal societies doing injustice to both nature and women.

3. VEGETARIAN ECOFEMISIM:

Vegetarian ecofeminists are strongly against humans having power over animals. This refers to the exploitative use of animals for food or materials. They are against the killing of animals for food and fashion industry (fur and leather).

EXAMPLE:

Anita Desai’s 1978 Sahitya Academy Award winning novel ‘Fire on the Mountain’ presents the physical and mental abuse of three women with the oppression of nature.

In this novel, men are agents of domination, hate and brutality while nature and ecology is interrelated with women and the non-human. In the face of extreme exploitation, the darker and more sinister aspects of both women and nature are revealed throughout the course of the novel.

CONCLUSION:

In short, Ecofeminism aims to empower and restore the health of nature on this planet and the socially, economically, politically and culturally equal status of women.

Watch a video on Black Feminism.