Classification of Speech Sounds: Consonants

 Classification of Speech Sounds Consonants

Speech Sounds may be classified considering following six criteria:

1. Airstream Mechanism Involved

2. State of the Glottis

3. Position of the Soft Palate (Velum)

4. Active and Passive Articulators Involved

5. Different Strictures Involved

6. Three-term description – voicing + place + manner

1. Airstream Mechanism Involved:

This refers to how the airflow is produced for speech.

(a) Pulmonic Egressive Airstream

Pulmonic = lungs, egressive = outward.

Air is pushed out of the lungs and modified by the articulators.

All English consonants use this mechanism.

Examples:

/p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /g/, /f/, /s/ — all produced by air pushed out of the lungs.

(b) Non-pulmonic Airstream

Not used in English; includes clicks, ejectives, implosives (found in African/Indian dialectal languages).

Balasubramaniam mentions them only for classification completeness.

2. State of the Glottis

This refers to how the vocal cords behave during the production of a consonant.

(a) Voiced Sounds

Vocal cords vibrate in closed position.

Example consonants:

/b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/, /m/, /n/, /l/, /r/

Try placing fingers on throat: vibration is felt.

(b) Voiceless Sounds

Vocal cords do not vibrate in open position.

Example consonants:

/p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /h/

(c) Aspirated vs Unaspirated

Aspiration = small burst of breath after release.

English has aspirated /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/ in word-initial stressed positions.

pin → pʰin

top → tʰop

come → kʰʌm

3. Position of the Soft Palate (Velum)

This decides whether the air escapes through the mouth or also through the nose.

(a) Oral Consonants

Soft palate is raised, blocking nasal passage → air flows only through mouth.

Examples:

/p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/, /l/, /r/

(b) Nasal Consonants

Soft palate is lowered, allowing air to escape through the nose.

Examples:

/m/ (bilabial nasal)

/n/ (alveolar nasal)

/ŋ/ (velar nasal as in sing)

4. Active and Passive Articulators Involved

Consonants are produced by two articulators, one moving (active) and one still (passive).

(a)Active Articulators (moving):

·      Lower lip (labial sounds) → /p/, /b/, /m/

·      Tip/blade of tongue (dentals, alveolars) → /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/, /s/

 

·      Front/back of tongue (palatals, velars) → /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /k/, /g/

·      Glottis (for /h/)

(b)Passive Articulators (stationary):

·      Upper lip

·      Upper teeth (for /f/, /v/)

·      Alveolar ridge (for /t/, /d/, /s/)

·      Hard palate (for /j/)

·      Soft palate (velum for /k/, /g/)

Example:

For /t/:

Active: tip of tongue

Passive: alveolar ridge

5. Different Strictures Involved

“Stricture” = the manner in which airflow is obstructed.

Balasubramaniam classifies strictures as:

(a) Complete Closure (Stops/Plosives)

Air is completely stopped, then released.

Examples: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/

(b) Incomplete Closure (Nasals)

Mouth is blocked but nasal passage open.

Examples: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/

(c) Narrowing (Fricatives)

Air passes through a narrow gap, creating friction.

Examples: /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/

(d) Partial Closure (Lateral)

Air escapes from the sides of the tongue.

Example: /l/

(e) Intermittent Closure (Trill/Tap/Flap)

Not common in English, but Indian English may use a flap /ɾ/ for /r/.

(f) Glide/Approximation

Articulators come close but no friction.

Examples: /j/ (yes), /w/ (we)

6. Three-Term Description of Consonants

Every English consonant can be fully described using three terms:

(a) Voicing — voiced or voiceless

(b) Place of articulation — bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, etc.

(c) Manner of articulation — plosive, nasal, fricative, lateral, affricate, etc.

Examples:

Consonant       Voicing    Place        Manner   Three-term Description

/p/   Voiceless Bilabial    Plosive     Voiceless bilabial plosive

/b/   Voiced     Bilabial    Plosive     Voiced bilabial plosive

/t/   Voiceless Alveolar  Plosive     Voiceless alveolar plosive

/d/   Voiced     Alveolar  Plosive     Voiced alveolar plosive

/f/   Voiceless Labio-dental    Fricative  Voiceless labiodental fricative

/v/   Voiced     Labio-dental    Fricative  Voiced labiodental fricative

/ʃ/    Voiceless Palato-alveolar       Fricative  Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative

/m/ Voiced     Bilabial    Nasal       Voiced bilabial nasal

/l/    Voiced     Alveolar  Lateral     Voiced alveolar lateral

/j/    Voiced     Palatal     Approximant  Voiced palatal approximant

Summary:

English consonants are classified using:

1. Airstream mechanism – mainly pulmonic egressive

2. State of glottis – voiced/voiceless

3. Soft palate position – oral/nasal

4. Articulators – active and passive

5. Stricture – manner (plosive, fricative, nasal, etc.)

6. Three-term description – voicing + place + manner

These six parameters together give a complete phonetic description of any English consonants.