Pragmatics in Computational Linguistics

 Pragmatics in Computational Linguistics

1. Introduction

Language does not fully express everything we mean. The actual intention of a speaker is much deeper than the literal words spoken. According to Levinson, an utterance is not a perfect snapshot of the scene it describes, but only a sketch of the speaker’s intention.

This difference between what is said and what is meant, and how listeners fill the gap using context, forms the basis of Pragmatics.

In simple words:

Pragmatics is the study of how meaning changes depending on context, intentions, shared knowledge, and social situations.

Thus, pragmatics explores:

·      Why we often mean more than we say

·      How listeners understand the hidden meanings

·      How context shapes interpretation

2. Modeling Context – Common Ground

Pragmatics depends on a shared understanding between the speakers and the listeners called common ground or conversational record, introduced by Stalnaker .

What is Common Ground?

The common ground is the set of propositions that all participants agree are true for the sake of the conversation.

It includes:

·      World knowledge (facts, culture)

·      Information about speakers (identity, relations)

·      Physical & situational context (time, place, objects present)

·      Previous utterances in the conversation

Stalnaker explains that language updates the common ground, and the common ground guides the interpretation of language. They affect each other continuously.

3. Context Dependence

Many linguistic expressions change meaning with the situation. For example, the words - I, here, now, she, tomorrow. Their meaning depends on who speaks, when, and where.

Example

“I am feeding the dogs now.”

 To interpret this, we must know:

·      Who is “I” (a common man, an actor, a prime minister)

·      What location counts as “here” (where food is a scarcity?)

·      What time is “now” (when the dog is hungry?)

Thus, context controls interpretation. This makes pragmatics essential.

4. Gricean Pragmatics – Cooperative Principle

H. P. Grice explained that conversations work because both listener and speaker cooperate to understand each other. He defined the Cooperative Principle, supported by four conversational maxims. Grice said that conversation works smoothly because speakers and listeners cooperate.
Even when we do not say everything directly, we assume the other person is trying to be helpful and meaningful.

Grice explained this cooperation through four conversational maxims – Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner.

1. Maxim of Quality (Truth)

Rule: Do not say what you believe is false or for which you have no evidence.

Example (Following the maxim):

A: “Is it raining outside?”
B: “Yes, I just came in and it’s raining.”

Example (Violating the maxim):

B: “Yes, it’s raining.” (when it is actually sunny)

Meaning: We expect speakers to tell the truth.

2. Maxim of Quantity (Information)

Rule: Say as much as needed—no more, no less.

Example (Following the maxim):

A: “Where do you live?”
B: “In Ahmedabad.”

Too little information:

B: “Somewhere in Gujarat.”

Too much information:

B: “In Ahmedabad, near the river, third floor, blue building…”

Meaning: Give exactly the required amount of information.

3. Maxim of Relation (Relevance)

Rule: Be relevant to the topic.

Example (Following the maxim):

A: “Did you finish the assignment?”
B: “Yes, I submitted it this morning.”

Violating the maxim:

A: “Did you finish the assignment?”

B: “The weather is very hot today.”

Meaning: Responses should stay connected to the conversation.

4. Maxim of Manner (Clarity)

Rule: Be clear, brief, and orderly. Avoid confusion and ambiguity.

Clear answer:

A: “How do I reach the office?”
B: “Go straight, take the second left, and you’ll see it.”

Unclear answer:

B: “Well, you know, there’s a road and something like a turn…”

Meaning: Speak clearly and simply.

 

One Combined Example (All Maxims Working Together)

A: “Where is the library?”
B: “It’s on the ground floor, next to the NCC office.”

✔ Quality – True information
✔ Quantity – Just enough detail
✔ Relation – Relevant answer
✔ Manner – Clear and simple

5. Conversational Implicature

An implicature occurs when the speaker implies something without saying it directly. It can be Context-dependent. The implied meaning depends on the situation and background knowledge.

Example:

Teacher: “Is Rohan regular in class?”

Colleague: “He attends on most days.”

Implied meaning: Rohan is not very regular.

6. Dimensions of Meaning

Potts explains that utterances often express multiple layers of meaning at once.

Example:

“Rima finally finished the stupid report.”

 Primary meaning: Rita finished the report.

 Secondary meaning: Speaker is emotional/frustrated/excited.

 

Characteristics of secondary meanings:

·      They survive negation, questions, and conditions.

·      They are often presupposed (background assumptions).

Example:

“Sam broke his skateboard.”

 Presupposition: Sam has a skateboard.

If someone objects, they may say:

“Wait, I didn’t know Sam had a skateboard!”

This challenges the presupposition, not the main claim.

7. Speech Acts

Speech act theory classifies utterances based on what action they perform:

·      Assertives (state facts)

·      Directives (command or request)

·      Commissives (promises)

·      Expressives (emotions)

·      Declaratives (social change: “I now pronounce you…”)

However, the same grammatical structure may perform different speech acts depending on context.

Example (Imperative “Have a seat”):

Can be a request, order, or invitation depending on situation and power relations .

Thus, speech act force is not fixed by sentence form alone, but determined by shared knowledge and context.

8. Conclusion

Pragmatics explains how meaning goes beyond grammar and dictionary definitions. It studies:

·      How context shapes meaning

·      How we infer intentions

·      How speakers manage shared understanding

How subtle meanings like emotions, politeness, presuppositions, and implicatures arise

Because real communication is full of indirect meanings, ambiguity, and social signals, pragmatics is essential in:

·      Human communication analysis

·      Computational linguistics (NLP, AI)

·      Machine learning for chatbots & speech systems

·      Language teaching and stylistics

In short, Pragmatics reveals how language truly works: not just in words, but in minds, situations, and relationships.